Moral hazards in financial system

Loans and the Housing Bubble Burst A moral hazard in economics is where someone takes a risk that they wouldn't normally take because they know that the consequences of that risk not paying off will be paid by somebody else. The case we will be discussing will be the housing bubble burst and it relates to the topic because lenders took great risks lending money to people that could not afford it knowing their banks were too big to fail and he government would have to bail them out.To begin this case we must first give a brief summary. After the dot. Com bubble burst of 2000 and the attacks on the US on September 11 the US economy was at a great risk of going into a recession. Central banks around the world including our federal reserve tried to stimulate the economy by reducing interest rates. This made a lot of people see the opportunity to make money and they started taking on riskier investments like for example buying houses that they knew they couldn't afford hoping to flip it i n a couple of years and make a great deal of money.Lenders saw this as an opportunity to make money as well by lending all this money but they did It with high risk approving people with supreme credit that would normally never get approved for these loans. Consumers kept this trend going and every year more and more supreme mortgages were being Initiated until 2006 when the housing bubble anally burst.The result was more foreclosures per year than had ever been seen before in the US and many lenders and hedge funds having to declare bankruptcy or need government ball outs. Moral hazards in financial system By caricaturing this as an opportunity to make money as well by lending all this money but they did it more supreme mortgages were being initiated until 2006 when the housing bubble need government bail outs.

Aunt Alexandra in “To Kill A Mockingbird” by Harper Lee Essay

Aunt Alexandra comes to the Finch residence at the end of chapter twelve, declaring that the family decided that it would be best for Scout and Jem to have some feminine influence in their lives. Scout knows that Alexander usually dictates what she wants upon the family, and uses the term the family decided to make her an even greater point of authority in the Finch family. Usually her dictations give her chances to impress her views on others or increase the family name and work towards the ideal family that she envisions. Examples of her tyranny include the time she made Atticus attempt to impress on the children the facts of life and how she forced herself upon Atticus and the children (dictating that she should move in with in them). Aunt Alexandra makes refreshments for the Missionary Society. These refreshments she makes herself rather than getting Calpurnia to make them; perhaps this is attempt to prove herself superior to almost everybody else while also adding to her reputation of a good hostess. As well as making refreshments for the missionary society Aunt Alexandra joined the Maycomb Amanuensis Club and became the secretary. Aunt Alexandra is slightly hypocritical because as an incurable gossip she has no problem making down almost everyone in Maycomb but couldnt hear a word against herself or the rest of the Finch family. She also said that almost everyone in Maycomb had a streak but when Atticus pointed out that the Finches had an incestuous streak she completely denied it. Aunt Alexandra has many good and bad qualities most concern the maturation and upbringing of the children. Good qualities include the fact she wants the best for Jem, Scout and the rest of the family, she will uphold any moral (page 146), she had plenty of pride in her family and she constantly tries to improve herself (page 147). However she has a lot of bad qualities; she is dictative, she is prejudice and she believes Finches are of a higher class to almost all others. Aunt Alexandra is a major character in the story because of she is one of the only points of authority and the greatest feminine influence for Scout and Jem. Despite her faults she does what she believes is best for the children  and community. Sources: To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Business and management Essay

Introductions (Task1) In this task I will talk about the interpersonal and communicational skills, in the task I will demonstrate a role play to identify my interpersonal and communicational skills. After I demonstrate the role play my colleagues will give feedback where I need to improved it, than i will mention how can i improve my interpersonal and communicational skills. Lastly i will mention how key management functions may be met more effectively through the use of key interpersonal and communicational skills. Findings P4) What interpersonal and communication skills can you bring and why? Interpersonal skills are the skills connected with dealing with the people and working with other efficiency to make the business success. Interpersonal skills are used often into business contexts to refer to the measure of a person’s ability to operate within business organisation. Interpersonal skills including:   Working with other harmoniously Evaluating and excepting responsibilities   Understanding measured to respond conflicts   Working in team effectively Working with other harmoniously means we need to make sure the teams are get on with there responsibly and to check them whether if they are working together with out no arguing, it is better individuals to work together to achieve the success of the business. Evaluating and excepting responsibilities means as a manager we have set a target for the employees and they can be used for the individual or teams, the manager has to chase the employees whether if they getting on the responsibilities that is been given individually or as teams, after that the manager has to evaluate the have achieved the target that is been sat if its acceptable or not. Understandings measured the respond of conflicts first full its generally understood that communicating respect other people or professionals within the work place will enable to reduce the conflicts. And increase participations or assistance in obtaining information or completing tasks. Working in team effectively this is one of the important of the interpersonal skills, as a manger we have to check employees are work together as team cooperatively. The business to achieve a success it require employees working together effectively, effective teams are an intermediary goal toward getting goods, sustainable result, and at the end of the if the business become success the employees a accomplish they goals and will share the credit with the business. Communication skills are also skills connected the dealing with the people in the process by which the information exchange. Communications skills used often into business contexts, there are skills related to communication skills, these are: Formal and informal Tone of voice Body language Visual communication Formal or informal style of communication can also be used in written, some pieces of written such as letter or journal tend to be a formal whereas email and popular magazine article tends to be informal. The important thing with communication is to use the right form for the right purpose. Managers needs to think carefully about how to communication the employees appropriately. Tone of voice: Their impress are based on tone and the quality of voice. Verbal communication extends beyond words, audible sound, transfer meaning, in additional tone or attitude communication some times. Body language: Open body stance and positioning invite communication and interaction, whereas the close body stance a positioning impedes communication, using an open body language posture improves the communication with the employees, both managers and employees to learn to read each other body language. Visual communication: People communicate with the ayes as well as the ears. Communication occur cues of body language and facial expression, aye contact is the communication connector, making ayes contact helps confirm attention and interest between the manager and the employees. M2) Based on my experience of the role play, Explain how you could improve your own interpersonal and communicational skills. My role play I am a manager in new retail which owns a business man called Mr Tosh. And I feel that I have a problem to solve when i saw the feelings of the staff are unmotivated and feel that their job is not secure. In the class i discuss with my staff, i sat a SMART to ensure the business get back on track, we agree, me and my staff. One of the our agreement was if you achieve the target that in October if the sales go up 20% i will pay 10% bonus, and if you continue performing well and achieving the goal that we have agreed you job will be secure. Other points that we agreed was. To give continuation training Give bonus (reward the staff if they met the target) Cut the reward (if they done bad, down the sales performance) My interpersonal and communication skills Through the role play in the class, i got a feed back of my interpersonal and communication skills, after i get the recommendation. They suggested me that i need to improve some areas below. In verbal skills- i am not good at controlling my tone of voice in discussion, because i feel when i speak to my staff my English is not good enough. That makes me can not use the vary tone, pace, and loudness to stand out the points when i speaking. Non verbal skills_ my body language, i haven’t performed an aye contact and i haven’t smile in the conversation with my employees; because I my self I haven’t got enough confidence and that make me deal tense in the conversation. Improvement In the tone of voice; if I have varied of tone pace and loudness that can stand out the main points of my speech; that makes my audiences easier to grasp and got interest to listen my speech, in my problem, my English is not good enough to make my speech tense, i should be calm and concentrate first, a think what i have to say before i speak, make more preparation before i speak, and try excise with my tone, pace and loudness at home. My SMART objectives are: Spend 30 minute at each time for preparation before the role play and read newspapers with tone, pace and loudness in another 20 minute every two weeks. If it improvement my speaking skills after practice, that may let me speak more clear smooth and with vary tone, this also improve my English. The non verbal skills_ i haven’t look at staff with smile when i was performing my role play, because i was feeling that i am tense. I looked down when i was talking which may see the staff that i am weak, and not smiling the also may see that i am angry, anxious and not honesty. I should be calm, concentrate and make more preparation, so I set my self a SMART target to let me achieve: Spend 10 min more in preparation for the role play, and do more preparation as I said above, if I make more preparation, i can stay be more relax, calm and confidence than before, so that i can make an aye contact with a smile to the others. Start from now I will practice speak to the people with aye contact and smile when I talk, and i believe it will become a habit, then i can do that without thinking every time when I am suppose to speak. D2) Evaluate ways in which key management functions may be met more effectively through the use of key interpersonal and communicational skills. There are some key management functions, such as management resource, employees’ motivation, performance monitoring, reward and leadership. Those skills i have mentioned above can be met through the use of interpersonal and communication skills, that are the skills managers must be known, the reason is because having identified the roles of management its important to look at the employees’ capable of fulfilling the role and meet the challenges. There are examples below: Employees’ motivation: when we set a plan or target for the employees, we need to motivate then to cooperate and achieve it; employees usually work efficiency when they feel that they have been consulted about their target that they need to achieve. If the employees perform well and achieve the target, we need to reward them with appreciation and persuade them to set a new target. For example in the role play, i have sat a target and encouraged and motivated my staff to achieve it, after i have informed them and discuss what needs to be done, they really feel that they have achieved the target. Those are the interpersonal and communication skills the managers needs to persuade the employees to achieve it. Management resources: the management resource i have chosen to give and example in Human Resource. Sometimes managers may curry out decision the staff might not agree with, in that case manager needs to use interpersonal skills to persuade the employees to agree with him, at the end if the staff can not accepted, that might create conflict and they may curry out industrial action. Managers also need to resolve any conflict that comes up. Skills of management of conflict needed at all levels and all type of organisations. Performance monitoring and reward management needs to have good interview skills, for example an appraisal purpose, this has one technique to encourage them in the interview and make them relax and co-operate with the other staff. This is needs a body language such as tone of voice posture eye contact to suit the interview, if the employees feel relax, it easier to persuade them to achieve the target. The aim of appraisal is to set objective to the employees, usually at the start of the interview, they will look at if the staff achieve the objective set before the next interview, if they achieve the target, them you will pursued them to set another target again and again, at the end of the every quarter the manager have pay bonus to the staff to motivate. If they are not achieve the target the manager needs to persuade the staff to improve the performance or even discipline them they have continue achieve bad performances Introduction (Task2) In this task I will be giving two scenarios of how management activity can raise performance. Mr Tosh believes a good management lies in the planning and monitoring of system in place. For me to pass the second part of the show I will be given and open book time constraint covering the following. To explain how the aims and objectives may be achieved through planning and monitoring. Finding All businesses need to plan and monitored regardless of how small or large they are. For example, possibility plans need to be prepared in the eventuality of a setback which has a direct impact upon the way which the business goes about behaviour its business activities, normally by the same token, the importance of strategic planning for an organisation cannot be stressed enough. The strategic plan acts as a purpose for which the business seizes to exist; it highlights aims and objectives which need to be fulfilled by all the members of staff in order for the company to achieve both its short and long term objectives.   

Current Trends in Nursing Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Current Trends in Nursing Practice - Essay Example The Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) Medicare creates a shared savings program which will enable us to form an Accountable Care Organization which is legally recognized. This will enable us to coordinate our activities while providing Medicare free-for-services. In addition, an incentive given by the new law will play a significant role in motivating me to reach for more people and offer the necessary attention to all people who need our help irrespective of their location (CCH Incorporated, 2010). Therefore, through personal satisfaction, the Act will play a major role in creating a serene working environment and changing my attitude towards the nursing practices. This will enable me to be more satisfied with my work. Previously, there was no legislation that recognized a group of providers who were willing to offer free services to the members of public. Therefore, the inclusion of this aspect will be of great benefit in motivating me to bring together other like-minded nurses in order to make changes in the lives of the less fortunate in the society (United States,

Personal and Managerial Effectiveness Assignment - 1

Personal and Managerial Effectiveness - Assignment Example embraces responsibility for action’s of a firm and encourages through its overall activities a positive impact on consumers, stakeholders, environment, employees, and various other members who belong to public sphere. In 1960s the term corporate social responsibility gained its importance and was used by many firms to cover moral and legal responsibilities. Proponents often argue that corporate social responsibility activities facilitate long term profits for a firm while some critics often state that CSR distracts a firm from its economic role. It can be stated that CSR is a management concept that enables firm to integrate environmental and social concerns. This is a procedure through which a firm strikes balance between social, economic and environmental imperatives. The CSR policy is a mechanism through which shareholder’s expectations are successfully met and even stakeholders are satisfied. Tesco Plc is a retailer of general merchandise and multinational grocery t hat has its headquarters in United Kingdom. Through its effective strategies Tesco has been able to create a unique position in the market. It is the market leader in terms of selling grocery in UK. The company has its stores spread across 12 countries. Corporate Social Responsibility forms an integral part of the business operations of Tesco. It donates a desirable percentage of its profit margins towards local community or charitable organizations. The company not only considers societal benefits but also implements strategies that safeguard the environment. It has always given importance to CSR activities much beyond the business interests. According to Freeman and Velamuri (2006), Corporate Social Responsibility possesses permeated management theory and practice and can be considered to be the latest management fad. There has been an uneven integration of CSR into business process. Most firms consider CSR policy to be a tool that reduces operational costs and risk. There is only certain

Dyson Casestudy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Dyson Casestudy - Essay Example Strategic capabilities Dyson was operating in a very competitive environment. This called for the need to introduce new frameworks and innovations that would see the company survive in the market. James Dyson believed in patents. He always ensured that whatever new form of technology he used was protected by patent laws he did this so as to ensure that his designs and innovations are not copied by the competitors. Dyson also analyzed the market to establish the true market requirements. With this information, he was able to devise a product that would meet all the market requirements and satisfy them (Bessant & Tidd, 2011, p. 267). Dyson was also involved in a move that raised numerous criticisms in its home country, the United Kingdom. James Dyson decided to move its manufacturing plant from United Kingdom to Malaysia and China. This move was to ensure that the company stays competitive. The cost of production in the home country became too much and the move was to ensure that the c ost of production was minimized which will in turn lead to an increase in the amount of profit that was generated. The move to Malaysia, according to James Dyson, was so that they could have a testing facility close to their suppliers, of whom were all located in the eastern countries. This move was aimed at increasing efficiency in the company. However, the move resulted in the loss of hundreds of jobs in the United Kingdom. Imitation Competition is very stiff in the current market. This therefore means that the competitors of the company may try to imitate their biggest rivals in a bid to increase their sales. Due to the fact that James Dyson believed in patent protection so much, it became difficult for other competitors to imitate the company’s products. In my opinion therefore, I think that Dyson’s capabilities could be difficult to imitate. This is because James Dyson has studied school of arts. This therefore means that his ideas and innovations are very unique due to high innovative nature that he is capable of (Witcher & Chau, 2010, p. 79). I therefore think that the competitors may only be able to imitate Dyson’s capabilities in the design level. This is because the competitors will only get to see the product after it has been launched in the market. Dyson always ensures that all its secrets in the production line remain to be just secrets. This is also ensured by the manner in which security within the plant is handled. For starters, every door within the company is opened using a thumb print scanner. However much this is the case, there are still some areas of the company that are regarded to be off limits. That is, there are areas that not everybody is allowed to go in to. Furthermore, all of Dyson’s designs, technologies and innovations are protected by patent laws. This prohibits the competitors from copying any of their designs. As a result, Dyson’s products come out as unique and original designs. This has m ade it extremely impossible for the competitors to imitate anything with regards to Dyson’s products (Thompson & Martin, 2010, p. 167). Distinctive capabilities Dyson has over the years emerged to be at the top of its market. All this is owed to the fact that the company has several unique capabilities and qualities that help in ensuring the company remains competitive in nature. I my opinion, I think James Dyson’s unique ability to come up with new designs and innovations for the

Fog of war Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fog of war - Movie Review Example With the above in mind, the films goes on to provide lessons, as portrayed in the title, eleven lessons that can be learnt from his role as secretary of defense and as an advisor. In relation to the above, the film delves and dwells on the issues that McNamara has had to live with since his years in the government. This is concerning the consequences of his counsel to the government, which led to numerous losses in the United States and the world at large. This is as displayed by his role, in which he advised the government to participate in wars that led to enormous loss of human life and destruction of property across the globe. One such event, that he confesses to, is the Vietnam war in which numerous civilians were wiped out to the tune of over 3.4 million Vietnamese lives lost. The film also allows McNamara to confess to his erroneous judgment in waging and strategizing for war. However, the film fails to capture his admission to moral failures on his side, for which he should take responsibility. As a result, the film fails to capture the details of the embarrassing truth on his role and personal responsibility towards the two wars in which he was involved. This shows a weakness in the methods of interviewing used as McNamara appears prepared to avoid any issues likely to raise controversy on his part (Holden). In addition, the film/ documentary seem to provide a moral twist to the entire storyline by bringing out his role in the Second World War. This is done by the part where he was a strategist for world war two and was part of a team that recommended the burning of Japanese cities. In this case over two million Japanese civilians were killed, which incriminates McNamara as having participated in war crimes. His moral sentimentality towards the issue is portrayed by the comments he makes on the likelihood of his prosecutions had the Japanese or Vietname se won the wars. In addition to morality, one of

Born Blue by Han Nolan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Born Blue by Han Nolan - Essay Example They have access to health care, educational opportunities and decent food and lodgings. The poor are not so lucky. If you are born into poverty you are likely to have to fight for your right to have a roof over your head and food to eat. Healthcare is a joke and many of the schools in the poor districts have become urban ghettos where drive by shootings, muggings and fear rule the playground. Is this a bleak prediction for the future of America? Are things just going to get worse? Not necessarily. The problem is that the initiatives that are put in place by the government to help the poor in terms of affordable housing, access to health care and a decent education are aimed at the masses; when in fact it is on an individual level that things have to change. The baby born into the slums needs to be encouraged that they can better themselves. They need to be encouraged to dream and dream big. Because although the opportunities to succeed are a lot more hidden than they used to be, they are still there. "The whole time I lived with Patsy and Pete and Harmon and the babies that come an go, I loved Harmon and the ladies most, and almost everyday I lived there, which lasted almost three years, wed go to the basement and listen to the ladies sing. But Harmon didnt dance and I didnt sing. We was too scared to get the strap. Wed lay on the sour rug and dream we was singin and dancin, and I had me a stack of bread on a plate by my side for when I got so hungry I thought I would die". (Janie, aged 6, p. 6, Kindle edition) Dreaming – it is the one thing in life that is free. When Janie was little and living in the foster home she met up with her only friend, Harmon, who had old cassette tapes of some of the old time singers – Aretha Franklin and women like that. Janie and Harmon used to listen to the tapes to help them escape their reality – little food, harsh caregivers, neglect and drugged up parents. The problem is that

Managerial and Cost Accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Managerial and Cost Accounting - Assignment Example Ross used to influence people only through his teaching inside the classroom. He neither wrote an article or a book in order to influence people like most writer or professors generally do. The author became a research assistant to Mr. Ross in the year 1940 for a second-year course named Control, a course which is a sort of contrast with the traditional Cost Accounting course. Nevertheless, the course became successful as a result of the reputation Mr. Ross has got as an impressive teacher of accounting at Harvard. The first appearance of management accounting in textbooks was, I believe, a first-year accounting text entitled Management Accounting: Text and Cases (Anthony; now Anthony and Reece) published in 1956. This text contained a series of detailed cost-accounting cases. A similar text by Massachusetts Institute of Technology professors appeared at approximately the same time written by Hill and Gordon in the year 1959. In the year 1965, a monograph named Planning and Control S ystems – A Framework for Analysis, written by the author was published by the Harvard Business School. It was the culmination of a series of meetings of the Harvard Business School Control faculty. Unlike most other Harvard Business School publications at that time, it proposed a framework rather than describing the results of a study of actual performance. It was written in the article that there is a contrast between Management Accounting and Cost Accounting.

Fate in Oedipus the King Essay Example for Free

Fate in Oedipus the King Essay Tragedy of Oedipus is about pre-destination vs free-will. Fate does play a part in the tragic down fall of Oedipus but it does not mean that his character and disposition has no liability for that. Excessive arrogance and self-confidence of Oedipus is the main cause of his tragedy. He harbors unjustified suspicions against Tiresias and Creon; in one place he goes so far as to express some uncertainty about the prophetic natures of oracles and truth of their prophecies. It is hardly likely that even a combination of all these would be equal to what Aristotle considered to be a serious hamartia, and it would not be very relevant to the point at issue even if he did, for Oedipus has committed incest and parricide years before the action of the play began, and before he exhibited any of the failing mentioned above. It would hardly be logical to say that the gods punished Oedipus for a crime which he was to commit many days later. Another view is that the present failings of Oedipus may be taken to means that he was he was always like that, and his tragedy comes due some inherent or innate unsoundness in his character. So he is not a puppet in the hands of fate. But Sophocles also illustrates that it was fate that brought him to Thebes and it was gain fate that he came across someone at where three highways came together. It was his fate that he married his mother. Above all, fate has played a pivotal role in his life from the very start and has not dealt with him even-handedly. The divine will as predicted and proclaimed by the oracle was absolute and it has nothing good about Oedipus. Although certain measures were taken by the King and Queen) to escape from that proclaimed destiny but it became the cause for the tragic downfall of Oedipus. That is the reason that Oedipus says after blinding himself. God. God. / Is there a sorrow greater? /Where shall I find harbor in this world? / My voice is hurled far on a dark wind. / What has God done to me? (Sophocles 831) Dodds writes about the nature of fate as demonstrated by Oedipus that fate is inevitably and inexorably bound to happen no matter what Oedipus may have done to avoid it (Dodds 21).

Cache Memory Plays A Lead Role Information Technology Essay

Cache Memory Plays A Lead Role Information Technology Essay Answer: Cache (prominent and pronounced as cash) memory is enormously and extremely fast memory that is built into a computers central processing unit (CPU) or located next to it on a separate chip. The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to run programs, improving overall system speed. It helps CPU to accessing for frequently or recently accessed data. C:UsersraushanPicturespage36-1.jpg References: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-cache-memory.htm Reason for Cache Memory: There are various reasons for using Cache in the computer some of the reason is mentioning following. The RAM is comparatively very slow as compared to System CPU and it is also far from the CPU (connected through Bus), so there is need to add another small size memory which is very near to the CPU and also very fast so that the CPU will not remain in deadlock mode while it waiting resources from main memory. this memory is known as Cache memory. This is also a RAM but is very high speed as compare to Primary memory i.e. RAM. In Speed CPU works in femto or nano seconds the distance also plays a major role in case of performance. Cache memory is designed to supply the CPU with the most frequently requested data and instructions. Because retrieving data from cache takes a fraction of the time that it takes to access it from main memory, having cache memory can save a lot of time. Whenever we work on more than one application. This cache memory is use to keep control and locate the running application within fraction of nano seconds. It enhances performance capability of the system. Cache memory directly communicates with the processor. It is used preventing mismatch between processor and memory while switching from one application two another instantaneously whenever needed by user. It keeps track of all currently working applications and their currently used resources. For example, a web browser stores newly visited web pages in a cache directory, so that we can return promptly to the page without requesting it from the original server. When we strike the Reload button, browser compares the cached page with the current page out on the network, and updates our local version if required. References: 1. http://www.kingston.com/tools/umg/umg03.asp 2. http://www.kingston.com/frroot/tools/umg/umg03.asp 3. http://ask.yahoo.com/19990329.html How Cache Works? Answer: The cache is programmed (in hardware) to hold recently-accessed memory locations in case they are needed again. So, each of these instructions will be saved in the cache after being loaded from memory the first time. The next time the processor wants to use the same instruction, it will check the cache first, see that the instruction it needs is there, and load it from cache instead of going to the slower system RAM. The number of instructions that can be buffered this way is a function of the size and design of the cache. The details of how cache memory works vary depending on the different cache controllers and processors, so I wont describe the exact details. In general, though, cache memory works by attempting to predict which memory the processor is going to need next, and loading that memory before the processor needs it, and saving the results after the processor is done with it. Whenever the byte at a given memory address is needed to be read, the processor attempts to get the data from the cache memory. If the cache doesnt have that data, the processor is halted while it is loaded from main memory into the cache. At that time memory around the required data is also loaded into the cache. When data is loaded from main memory to the cache, it will have to replace something that is already in the cache. So, when this happens, the cache determines if the memory that is going to be replaced has changed. If it has, it first saves the changes to main memory, and then loads the new data. The cache sys tem doesnt worry about data structures at all, but rather whether a given address in main memory is in the cache or not. In fact, if you are familiar with virtual memory where the hard drive is used to make it appear like a computer has more RAM than it really does, the cache memory is similar. Lets take a library as an example o how caching works. Imagine a large library but with only one librarian (the standard one CPU setup). The first person comes into the library and asks for A CSA book (By IRV Englander). The librarian goes off follows the path to the bookshelves (Memory Bus) retrieves the book and gives it to the person. The book is returned to the library once its finished with. Now without cache the book would be returned to the shelf. When the next person arrives and asks for CSA book (By IRV Englander), the same process happens and takes the same amount of time. Cache memory is like a hot list of instructions needed by the CPU. The memory manager saves in cache each instruction the CPU needs; each time the CPU gets an instruction it needs from cache that instruction moves to the top of the hot list. When cache is filled and the CPU calls for a new instruction, the system overwrites the data in cache that hasnt been used for the longest period of time. This way, the high priority information thats used continuously stays in cache, while the less frequently used information drops out after an Interval. Its similar to when u access a program frequently the program is listed on the start menu here need not have to find the program from the list on all programs u simply open the start menu and click on the program listed there, doesnt this saves Your time. Working of cache Pentium 4: Pentium 4: L1 cache (8k bytes, 64 byte lines, Four ways set associative) L2 cache (256k,128 byte lines,8 way set associative) References: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cache.htm http://www.kingston.com/tools/umg/umg03.asp http://www.zak.ict.pwr.wroc.pl/nikodem/ak_materialy/Cache%20organization%20by%20Stallings.pdf Levels of Cache Level 1 Cache (L1): The Level 1 cache, or primary cache, is on the CPU and is used for temporary storage of instructions and data organised in blocks of 32 bytes. Primary cache is the fastest form of storage. Because its built in to the chip with a zero wait-state (delay) interface to the processors execution unit, it is limited in size. Level 1 cache is implemented using Static RAM (SRAM) and until recently was traditionally 16KB in size. SRAM uses two transistors per bit and can hold data without external assistance, for as long as power is supplied to the circuit. The second transistor controls the output of the first: a circuit known as a flip-flop so-called because it has two stable states which it can flip between. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be refreshed many times per second in order to hold its data contents. Intels P55 MMX processor, launched at the start of 1997, was noteworthy for the increase in size of its Level 1 cache to 32KB. The AMD K6 and Cyrix M2 chips launched later that year upped the ante further by providing Level 1 caches of 64KB. 64Kb has remained the standard L1 cache size, though various multiple-core processors may utilise it differently. For all L1 cache designs the control logic of the primary cache keeps the most frequently used data and code in the cache and updates external memory only when the CPU hands over control to other bus masters, or during direct memory access by peripherals such as optical drives and sound cards. http://www.pctechguide.com/14Memory_L1_cache.htm ever_s1 Level 2 Cache (L2): Most PCs are offered with a Level 2 cache to bridge the processor/memory performance gap. Level 2 cache also referred to as secondary cache) uses the same control logic as Level 1 cache and is also implemented in SRAM. Level 2 caches typically comes in two sizes, 256KB or 512KB, and can be found, or soldered onto the motherboard, in a Card Edge Low Profile (CELP) socket or, more recently, on a COAST module. The latter resembles a SIMM but is a little shorter and plugs into a COAST socket, which is normally located close to the processor and resembles a PCI expansion slot. The aim of the Level 2 cache is to supply stored information to the processor without any delay (wait-state). For this purpose, the bus interface of the processor has a special transfer protocol called burst mode. A burst cycle consists of four data transfers where only the addresses of the first 64 are output on the address bus. The most common Level 2 cache is synchronous pipeline burst. To have a synchronous cache a chipset, such as Triton, is required to support it. It can provide a 3-5% increase in PC performance because it is timed to a clock cycle. This is achieved by use of specialised SRAM technology which has been develo ped to allow zero wait-state access for consecutive burst read cycles. There is also asynchronous cache, which is cheaper and slower because it isnt timed to a clock cycle. With asynchronous SRAM, available in speeds between 12 and 20ns, (http://www.pctechguide.com/14Memory_L2_cache.htm) 976 http://www.karbosguide.com/books/pcarchitecture/images/976.png (picture) L3 cache Level 3 cache is something of a luxury item. Often only high end workstations and servers need L3 cache. Currently for consumers only the Pentium 4 Extreme Edition even features L3 cache. L3 has been both on-die, meaning part of the CPU or external meaning mounted near the CPU on the motherboard. It comes in many sizes and speeds. The point of cache is to keep the processor pipeline fed with data. CPU cores are typically the fastest part in the computer. As a result cache is used to pre-read or store frequently used instructions and data for quick access. Cache acts as a high speed buffer memory to more quickly provide the CPU with data. So, the concept of CPU cache leveling is one of performance optimization for the processor. http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,2845,1517372,00.asp The image below shows the complete cache hierarchy of the Shanghai processor. Barcelona also has a similar hierarchy except that it only has 2MB of L3 cache. L3_Cache_Architecture http://developer.amd.com/PublishingImages/L3_Cache_Architecture.jpg (picture) Cache Memory Organisation In a modern microprocessor several caches are found. They not only vary in size and functionality, but also their internal organization is typically different across the caches. Instruction Cache The instruction cache is used to store instructions. This helps to reduce the cost of going to memory to fetch instructions. The instruction cache regularly holds several other things, like branch prediction information. In certain cases, this cache can even perform some limited operation(s). The instruction cache on UltraSPARC, for example, also pre-decodes the incoming instruction. Data Cache A data cache is a fast buffer that contains the application data. Before the processor can operate on the data, it must be loaded from memory into the data cache. The element needed is then loaded from the cache line into a register and the instruction using this value can operate on it. The resultant value of the instruction is also stored in a register. The register contents are then stored back into the data cache. Eventually the cache line that this element is part of is copied back into the main memory. In some cases, the cache can be bypassed and data is stored into the registers directly. TLB Cache Translating a virtual page address to a valid physical address is rather costly. The TLB is a cache to store these translated addresses. Each entry in the TLB maps to an entire virtual memory page. The CPU can only operate on data and instructions that are mapped into the TLB. If this mapping is not present, the system has to re-create it, which is a relatively costly operation. The larger a page, the more effective capacity the TLB has. If an application does not make good use of the TLB (for example, random memory access) increasing the size of the page can be beneficial for performance, allowing for a bigger part of the address space to be mapped into the TLB. Some microprocessors, including UltraSPARC, implement two TLBs. One for pages containing instructions (I-TLB) and one for data pages (D-TLB). An Example of a typical cache organization is shown below: Cache Memory Principles à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Small amount of fast memory à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Placed between the processor and main memory à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Located either on the processor chip or on a separate module Cache Operation Overview Processor requests the contents of some memory location The cache is checked for the requested data If found, the requested word is delivered to the processor If not found, a block of main memory is first read into the cache, then therequested word is delivered to the processor When a block of data is fetched into the cache to satisfy a single memory reference, it is likely that there will be future references to that same memory location or to other words in the block locality or reference rule. Each block has a tag added to recognize it. Mapping Function An algorithm is needed to map main memory blocks into cache lines. A method is needed to determine which main memory block occupies a cache line. There are three techniques used: Direct Fully Associative Set Associative Direct Mapping: Direct mapped is a simple and efficient organization. The (virtual or physical) memory address of the incoming cache line controls which cache location is going to be used. Implementing this organization is straightforward and is relatively easy to make it scale with the processor clock. In a direct mapped organization, the replacement policy is built-in because cache line replacement is controlled by the (virtual or physical) memory address. Direct mapping assigned each memory block to a specific line in the cache. If a line is all ready taken up by a memory block when a new block needs to be loaded, the old block is trashed. The figure below shows how multiple blocks are mapped to the same line in the cache. This line is the only line that each of these blocks can be sent to. In the case of this figure, there are 8 bits in the block identification portion of the memory address. Consider a simple example-a 4-kilobyte cache with a line size of 32 bytes direct mapped on virtual addresses. Thus each load/store to cache moves 32 bytes. If one variable of type float takes 4 bytes on our system, each cache line will hold eight (32/4=8) such variables. http://csciwww.etsu.edu/tarnoff/labs4717/x86_sim/images/direct.gif The address for this broken down something like the following: Tag 8 bits identifying line in cache word id bits Direct mapping is simple and inexpensive to implement, but if a program accesses 2 blocks that map to the same line repeatedly, the cache begins to thrash back and forth reloading the line over and over again meaning misses are very high. Fully Associative: The fully associative cache design solves the potential problem of thrashing with a direct-mapped cache. The replacement policy is no longer a function of the memory address, but considers usage instead. With this design, typically the oldest cache line is evicted from the cache. This policy is called least recently used (LRU). In the previous example, LRU prevents the cache lines of a and b from being moved out prematurely. The downside of a fully associative design is cost. Additional logic is required to track usage of lines. The larger the cache size, the higher the cost. Therefore, it is difficult to scale this technology to very large (data) caches. Luckily, a good alternative exists. The address is broken into two parts: a tag used to identify which block is stored in which line of the cache (s bits) and a fixed number of LSB bits identifying the word within the blocks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tag  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   word id bits Set Associative: Set associative addresses the problem of possible thrashing in the direct mapping method. It does this by saying that instead of having exactly one line that a block can map to in the cache, we will group a few lines together creating a set. Then a block in memory can map to any one of the lines of a specific set. There is still only one set that the block can map to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tag  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   word id bits

Materials Used For Making Gears

Materials Used For Making Gears Tribology has been there since the beginning of recorded history. Tribology is the word basically derived from Greek in which tribos means rubbing. From this we understand that Tribology is the scientific study of interacting surfaces and of related subjects and practices. [1] The 3 factors that are considered to be a major factor in tribology are friction, wear and lubrication. Friction is defined as the opposite force created when 2 surfaces are in contact. Friction can cause damage to the parts in contacts due to the heat generation and this can be studied using tribology. Wear is defined as the irregularities caused in a surface due to the external factors. Running a machine with weared parts can reduce the life of the machine. Lubrication is defined as the viscous liquid applied between two surfaces in contact for better performance and longer life. Fig. 1: Gears [8] Gears are means by which power is transferred from the source to the application. [2] In the present world it has been used in most of the mechanical machines so that power can be transferred in an easier and sufficient way. The gearing technology started at about 100 years before and it was carried out by the Europeans in the Dark Ages to bring out the development in the gears. [2] As years passed by more developed versions of gears were introduced which were lightweight, with high speed and gears that could withstand high loads. The gears are used as an important component in automobiles so that power is transmitted from the engine to the wheels to cause an increase in the speed of the vehicle. Hypoid gears are one of the common gears used in automobiles to do this operation. [2] Transmission which is defined as two or more gears working in tandem is used as an important principle in automobiles. Untitled.jpg In todays world many gears have been developed and these gears are being used for different purposes. These gears have been been divided into 2 such as: External Gears: In these types of gears the teeth can be found outside the cylinder or cone. Internal Gears: These types of gears have teeths in the inner surface of the cylinder or cone. With either internal or external gears a lot of gears have been developed for different purposes and these gears are explained below:Spur Gears Spur gears: This is one of the most common types of gear. These gears have teeth perpendicular to the face of the gear and the edge of the tooth is parallel to the axis of rotation. The disadvantage of these types of gears is that they are a little noisy at low speeds and this reduces to a minimum at higher speeds. [7] Fig. 2: Spur Gear [9] Rack and pinion gears: This type of gears consists of a rack more like a spur gear with infinite radius of curvature and a pinion gear which keeps on rotating over the rack. These types of gears are mainly used to convert circular motion into linear motion. Trains run on railway tracks based on this principle. Racks Gears Fig. 3: Rack and Pinion Gear [9] Helical gears: Helical gears are almost similar to the spur gears. The difference is that the teeths are in a helicoids shape and are not parallel to the axis of rotation. [7] It is less noisy than the spur gears and is widely used in industries. [7] Double helical gears are also used which has helical gears kept inversely on both sides. Helical Gears Fig. 4: Helical Gear [9] Worm gears: These are the type of gears that consists of a concave teeth profile and this teeth is usually engaged to helical gears. It is used where power is to be transferred at 90 degrees. Here sliding motion is caused rather than helical motion. [7] Heavy lubricants with good film thickness is used to prevent contact of the metals because since the teeth is small there is a chance in breakage of the teeth causing higher maintenance of the gears. Worm Gears Fig. 5: Worm Gears [9] Bevel gears: These types of gears have conical shaped teeths. It is mainly used to connect shafts to intersecting lines. The angle between 2 bevel gears can be between 0 to 180 degrees depending upon the purpose. Bevel gears with equal number of teeths and shafts at 90 degrees are called miter gears. Spiral bevel gears also known as hypoid gears are used in automobiles. These gears will always have shafts at 90 degrees. Bevel Gears Fig. 6: Bevel Gears [9] Epicyclic gears: Here 2 or more external gears move inside an internal gear as shown in Fig. 8. These types of gears are mainly used in mechanical differentials. http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:plRNuhlKzzM8lM:http://www.monarchbearing.com/images/planetary-gears.gif Fig. 7: Epicyclic Gears [9] In all the types of gears above due to their contact with each other a frictional force is created between them and due to these frictional forces it can cause wear to the gears. Here the tribological factors come into play and reduce the life cycle of the gears. This can also cause the tooth of the gears to break. So lubricants have to be used to an extent to improve the life of the gears and materials have to be used according to the kind of environment in which the gears are to be used. Materials used for making Gears: Gears can be made from a wide variety of materials such as wood to high steel alloys depending on the requirements. Gears in different mechanical machines needs different materials to overcome the surrounding obstacles, for longer life of the equipment and the machine and also to reduce the cost. Due to these the design of gears will always depend on the accuracy level needed for the gears, load to be applied on the gears, speeds to which the gears will rotate, the noise limitations and the material to be used. So the cost of the gear will always depend on these factors. [2] So while selecting materials we should consider the tribological factors that would affect the gear while its operation like: Allowable bending and Hertz stress because as the bending stress is low there is a chance for the gear to get bend at higher temperatures. Wear resistance as the gears and gear tooths should not get weared at higher speed of rotation of the gears. Impact strength as the gears should not break when it is engaged with higher force with another gear. Water and corrosion resistance to resist against corrosion due to lubricant action. Manufacturing cost to make the gears profitable Size and weight so that the gears can be used in all machines Lubricant requirements to see that costly lubricants are not required to maintain the gears. Dimensionally stable and reliable. Stress free structure [3] Depending upon these factors, different materials are used and the details about properties of the materials and the conditions on which these materials are used are given below: Plastics: In the past, gears were made of wood or phenolic-resin impregnated cloth and as years passed by more light weight, low cost gears were required. With the invention of new polymers in plastics it gave more opportunities for the preparation of light weight, low cost gears. For this the most common plastics used today are acetate and nylon resins. This plastic gear reduces the cost of the gears when produced at large quantities and also is sometimes mixed with metals for longer and quieter operation of the gears. But since these acetate and nylon resins gears are limited to certain conditions such as strength, temperature resistance and accuracy it was required to make a different polymer for the preparation of the gears and a different polymer called Polyamide was developed. This polyamide molded gears could resist higher temperatures and could be used in certain situations in place of metal gears to overcome the tribological factors but due to its higher cost for production its still not used in all situations. [2] Non-ferrous alloys: Titanium is also another material that can be combined with other metals to form a gear. Also the die cast materials like zinc, aluminium, brass, bronze are also used for gears due to its high corrosion property, high strength, less machining. These non ferrous alloys can be used for making gears because it can overcome most of the tribological factors. But these metals cannot be produced at large quantities due to its high cost of production. [2] Cast iron: Cast iron is used for the preparation of gears because of its low cost, machinability and moderate mechanical properties. There are 3 types of cast irons differentiated basically depending on the structure of graphite in these irons. These are gray iron, malleable iron and ductile iron. Out of these the malleable and ductile irons have good shock resisting property and are mostly used in most of the gears by mixing it with other metals so that the gear made from this will be able to overcome most of the external factors affecting tribology. [2] Sintered Powder Metals: These metals are used where high production is required with low cost. The process is simple where powder is put into the suitable high pressure die. A wide variety of selections of powders are available in this section of powdered metals. This sintered powder is also widely used in automotive industries by hot forming process which was recently developed to improve the mechanical properties of gears and resist against the effects of tribology. [2] Hardened steels: This is one the most commonly used material in all industries for the manufacture of gears. These types of materials are used based on the factors like load, time period for which the material will work, lubricants to be used and the surrounding conditions that affect tribology such as temperature, pressure and humidity. When the gears are to be run at moderate temperature a low alloy material will be used for the production of gear and if the work load on the gear is to be high a high alloy material will be used after case carburizing or case nitriding to increase the fatigue strength. Of the 2 processes the case carburizing will have more distortion than the case nitriding process and would require an additional grinding process that would cause an increase in the cost of the gears. [2] Steel alloy is mostly used for the production gears more than normal steels. The materials used for gear preparation are an important factor for the preparation of gears as the working, the life of the gear, strength of the gear will all depend on the material. The material chosen must also be able to withstand the friction, wear and lubrication and have to be overcome to have long lasting and strong gears. If correct material is not chosen according to the criteria the machine can be of a complete failure and may not work properly. While selecting the materials the following factors have to be considered: Surface of the gears: The surface of gear has an important part in the life cycle of the gear as it must be able to withstand friction, wear and it must be able to properly engage with other gears and provide the required power to the required output shaft. For gears the surface texture which is defined as the combinations of imperfections on a surface [11] must be smooth and the gap between two teeths must be of proper size so the the 2 teeths are engaged correctly to each other. Eventhough gears now produced are with poor geometrical perfection or quality of surface texture companies is trying hard to produce gears with reduced surface texture by processes such as honing, lapping and super finishing methods. This is the opposite force caused when one body moves tangentially over another. The force can cause heat between the surface and can lead to the wear of the parts. The quality of the material used and the surface roughness decides the amount of friction that would occur on the surface of gears and this inturn decides the depth of wear that would occur on gears.The different types of wears that occurs on the surface of gears are given below: Adhesive wear: This type of wear occurs on the tooth surface and is very difficult to find. Here the surface of the tooth gets a quashed look due to the long running of the gears. A moderate adhesive wear can also be caused on the gear surface due to variable loading of on the gear at different times. [15] The moderate adhesive wear will appear bright and can be seen with the naked eye 9as shown in fig. 11). Untitled3.jpg Fig. 9: Moderate Adhesive Wear [15] Fig. 8: Adhesive wears [15] Abrasive wear: This type of wear occurs on gear surfaces when fine or severe dust particles are present in the lubricant used to reduce friction between the engaging gear surfaces. This type of wear is mainly seen in machines used at cement factories, road laying machines, mining machineries etc. The abrasives can cause the surface texture of the gear to change which in turn causes the application of more lubricant to the surface for the smooth running of the machine. [15] The abrasives in the lubricant can be of 2 types and cause wear to the gear in 2 methods which are classified as mild abrasion and severe abrasion. Mild Abrasion: This type of wear is caused when mild or fine particles are present in the lubricant and this causes wear on the surface of the gear. This cause only small marks on the surface of the gear and wear increases in the longer run of the gears. [15] Severe Abrasion: This type of wear is caused when large particles are present in the lubricant. It causes a larger wear in the gear and also can cause the breakdown in the machine. [15] Corrosive Abrasion: This type of abrasion is caused when the chemicals in Lubricating oil reacts with the surface. [15] Conformity: It is defined as the degree of agreement between the surfaces.[1] The degree of conformity must be maximum for gears to exactly engage and run for a longer period of time. Initial wear can increase the conformity between the gears. If the right amount of lubricant is added during the initial wear period the initial wear will stop by itself and increase the conformity between the gears. High conformity is found mostly between 2 flat surfaces. The lowest conformity is found between a flat surface and a ball.[1] Surface Texture: It is surface condition that depends on the material of manufacture, the way in which the material was processed, the lubricant used on the surface and the type of wear that occurs on the surface. Surface texture is an important factor for gears movement of the gears and the degree at which the gears touch each other depends on this property. Below the figure shows the terms that are used for defining the surface texture: Untitled 2.jpg Fig. 10: Terms used for Surface Texture [3] The irregularities in the surface of gears must be reduced to minimum while making a gear so that the thin film lubricant can run smoothly between gears and reduce the tribological factors between the gears. The surface finish should be smooth and must be free from sharp irregularities to increase the fatigue strength of the gear and this should be maintained throughout the gears to have a quieter operation. [3] The surface of the gear which is to be in contact with the other gear has to be of higher strength so the tooth dont get weared out easily. The precision of the gears structure should be considered for long lasting of the gears. The surface of the gears can be improved using methods like polishing, heat treatment methods, Lubrication for smoother operation of gears: Lubricants are a viscous fluid applied between 2 gears for reducing the heat generated between them and to lubricate the teeth to reduce the friction between the gears. The selections of lubricant have to be correct to in order to provide high efficiency, good reliability, low maintenance and long life for the gears. [4] Generally the gear operates in 3 modes of lubrication mainly boundary, mixed, full film and hydrodynamic lubrication. The boundary condition is attained when the gear is started or stopped. With increase in relative motion the mixed lubrication condition is obtained and with further increase in speed the gear is said to run at full film lubrication.[3] If there is a lubricant between the 2 contact surfaces and it is sufficient to protect the gears from contact then the lubrication is called as hydrodynamic lubrication. [1] The lubricant differs from the normal liquid by the property of viscosity. Viscosity is defined as the measure of the fluids resistance to flow. [ 13] Since gears would be under high pressure and sliding it would require a medium to high grade lubricant. As the viscosity of lubricant increases the lubricant is said to be more reliable for the gears. A gear lubricant is said to have the below factors for obtaining a good performance from the gear: thermal and oxidative stability thermal durability compatibility with seal materials protection against excessive gear and bearing wear high-temperature extreme pressure protection gear and bearing cleanliness emulsibility characteristics rust and corrosion protection, especially to yellow metal components antifoaming characteristics [5] The major tribological factors of the lubricant are: Viscosity: It is a property of the lubricant for providing the lubrication affect to the engaging gears. The viscosity of the lubricant can protect the gear from friction. Higher the viscosity greater the protection to the gears. Additives: It is a chemical substance added to oil to increase the property of oil and protect the gear against wear. Additives can protect the gear from wear and overheating. Better the additives greater will be the protection for the gear. Contamination: It is the addition of an external component in the lubricant that could reduce the property of the lubricant. This is a disadvantage for gears. If the contaminated substance is large it can cause a breakdown to the gears. Degradation: It is the wearing out of some parts of the gear due to chemical reactions. This is also a disadvantage to the gears. More the degradation more the chance for the tooth to break off. The below table explains the factors affecting selection of industrial gear lubricants: Factor Requirement Gearing Type Spur and bevel Helical and spiral bevel Hypoid Worm Low slide, low speed Moderate slide, moderate to high loading High slide, high loading Excessive sliding,moderate to high loading Loading High loaded industrial gear drives requires the use of extreme gear pressure gear lubricants. Surface finish Rougher surfaces requires high viscosity oils Smoother surfaces can use low viscosity oils Transmitted power As load is increased viscosity must be increased. Gear speed The higher the speed of the gear drive the lighter the viscosity needs to be Materials compatibility Some types of extreme pressure additives can attack yellow metals like brass and bronze Temperature The industrial gear lubricants viscosity must be selected based on the lowest and highest operating temperature. Table 1: Factors affecting selection of gear lubricant [6] Types of gear lubricants: There are lots of oil used as lubricant for gears to reduce wear,to protect against corrosion, to protect the gear against oxidation and to prevent the formation of foam between the 2 gears. [12] Inhibited oil: This is a lubricant used to prevent the corrosion and foaming between the gears. [12] Extreme Pressure Oils: These oils contain inhibited oils and chemically active substances and are used for modifying the friction acting between the 2 engaging gears.[12] Compounded oils; These are oils made from steam cylinder stocks compounded with fatless additives. The purpose of this oil is also to reduce friction.[12] Open gear compounds: This lubricant consists of additives and is used for high, slow speed heavily loaded gears. This lubricant protects the gear teeth from damage.[12] Greases: This is one of the commonly used lubricants. It consists thick soap contents. It can only be used on low speed gear surfaces.[12] Methods of lubrication: Grease Lubrication: This type of lubrication is used at gears with0 to 6 m/s tangential speed. It can be applied on all types of gears operating at low speeds. Excess of this lubricant can lead power loss and viscous drag.[5] Splash Lubrication: This type of lubrication is applied to gears with speed of 4 to 15 m/s tangential speed. Here the lubrication is done by running the gear through an oil bath. The lubricant is effective only from 3 m/s speed of the gear and the oil should be prevented from mixing with some other liquid or particles which could cause a damage to the gear teeth.[5] Spray Lubrication: This type of lubrication is applied to gears with more 12m/s of tangential operating speed. Here the oil for lubrication is sprayed through a nozzle. The nozzle should be engineered properly as there is a chance for the oil to get deflected out of path of flow by centrifugal force or by the air that is flowing out. [5] Lubricants can protect the gears from the tribological factors such as friction and wear. We know what are the types of lubricants to be used, their applications and the types of lubrication processes. It is important that we select the right amount and quality of lubricants for the gears so that they have a longer life and dont get weared out easily. Engineers are still now researching to find the best lubricant for gears so that defects in gears like scoring, scuffing, pitting doesnt occur at all for gears. The gear noise is also prevented to an extend by lubrication. Operating Conditions for Gears: Operating conditions are important tribological factors for gears as this will determine the lubricant to be used, the material to be selected for making gears. The operating conditions of gears are determined by the factors like load applied on the gear, the speed at which the gear is about to rotate,relative motion between the gears, environmental condition, the product of pressure and velocity acting on the gears and the temperature on which the gear is about to work. These operating conditions which are to be considered for operation of gear are applied below: Load: Load is the determining factor for the strength of a gear which determines the material to be used for the gear production, the amount of rubbing that would occur between the gear surfaces, the whole network of surface stresses that would occur in the contact zone of the gear surfaces and the coefficient of friction that would occur between the gears. The load also influences the behaviour of a lubricant or the abrasive particles present in the lubricant which would cause an impact on the gear tooth directly. The other area where the load influence is known is at the bonding between the gears that is directly dependent on the degradation of the surface films, increase in contact area and on temperature. In fact loading has a major impact on the change, age and wear characteristics of the materials. The schematic diagram of the influence of load on the operation of gear is given in the fig. 11.the figure explains the stresses produced due to load applied and the effects of these substances on the element.So in order to keep the gear in good condition and free from wear the following points have to be taken into account: To keep the gears in good condition progressive loading of gears is a best way. Decrease in load variation as it would reduce the rise of cavitation in the gears Decreasing fatigue loading in gears to prevent surface fatigue wear.[14] Speed: Speed of gear is an important factor as it varies from one mechanical component to another and is an important factor for the working of the machine. The parameter of the gears that are greatly influenced by the speed of gears are : Temperature: Temperature is a factor which is greatly influenced by the speed of the gear. As the speed of the gears increases the temperature between the gears also increases leading to more heat dissipation. Inorder to maintain the temperature between the gears we have to consider a good coolant and a good heat conducting surrounding medium. Friction coefficient: The effect of speed on the friction coefficient comes into play especially in a lubricated circumstance, where this factor determines the hydrodynamic load carrying capacity. At very low speed of the gears there is a chance for the stick-slip phenomenon due to the fluctuation in friction coefficient. [14] Load Normal Stresses Tangential Stresses Elastic and plastic deformation Degradation of surface films Chemical and metallurgical bonds (adhesion) Thickness of films Viscosity Lubricant Coefficient of friction Fig.11: Schematic flow chart showing the influence of load [15] Relative motion: The relative motion involves motions like sliding, rolling, spinning and bouncing. These motion can decrease the performance of the gear and also can cause wear in the gear. The use of correct material, lubricant and designing the gear correctly can increase the performance of the gear and also give longer life to the gear. [1] Environment: Environment can cause a decrease in performance of the gear. This is caused by the contamination of the lubricant and also due to the chemical reaction of the lubricant with the gear metals. [1] Product (PxV): Here the quantity of heat generated by friction is calculated from the energy at the contact which is given by the equation E = QVf (where Q = load applied to the contact, V = displacement velocity, f = friction coefficient). Here the term PxV is used as a reference to estimate the limiting conditions for materials such as polymers, solid lubricants, self lubricating sintered materials etc. This in turn can be used as a basis for the selection and comparison of materials. Thus we are able to know the maximum PxV for certain materials and us them for the production of gears. [14] Temperature: Temperature has a major effect on the contact zone of the 2 surfaces of a gear. The temperature increase in the tooth of the gear can cause geometric distortion or loss of clearance in the tooth. It can also cause an increase in the coefficient of friction and wear to the gear. Temperature can also cause deterioration in the mechanical properties of the materials and change the properties of the lubricants. An increase in the interfacial bonds is also caused which lead to a chemical reaction between the materials. [14] Conclusion: Thus the audit of gears using the tribological factors such as material, surface, lubrication and operating conditions was conducted. It is found that gears are useful in most of the mechanical applications and also have a lot of properties that are to be taken care of while the operation of the gear. In todays world, a lot of materials are available for the manufacture of gears. These materials can only be used in different conditions and have their own advantages and disadvantages. So in future a much modern material with zero wearing property and that provides longer life to the gears have to be developed. In the case of surfaces of gears smooth finished gears are already been produced these days. A surface with normal surface texture and conformity will provide smoother running of gears in future. A lots of lubricants are available in todays world. In future a more advanced lubricant can be developed that can reduce wearing of gears completely and also help to increas e the performance of gears to the fullest. All gears today are developed for performing at a particular load and temperature above which the gear can get damaged. So in future gears have to be developed that can operate at maximum temperature and load so that wear of gears due to these characteristics can be reduced to minimum.

Essay example --

The NFL contract was pretty reasonable but indeed long. It states various considerations of promises for each party before a signing shall take place. It is enforceable because it states promises, valuable consideration, and offer and acceptance. As a member, you must meet all promises stated on contract. Your responsibilities are such things as obeying rules, maintaining performance/skills, and maintain physical conditions. Also, some damages/liabilities could be injury, deductions and termination. I felt that the contract states possible damages clearly to all parties. If these were not states clearly, and agreement between the two parties would not have been reached. Breach of contract can be defined as a broken contract, stemming from failure to fulfill any term of a contract without a justifiable, lawful excuse. A possible breach can result in a possible law suit or even a termination. That is why it is important for both parties to understand all promises and to reach an understandable agreement between the two parties. Contract breaches have a bad impact on small busi...

Pollution Problems Concerning the Long Island Sound Essay -- Water Pol

"The Long Island Sound is a national treasure, to be prized for its beauty, abundant and diverse resources, and recreational and commercial opportunities" (Long Island Sound Study). It is true that for many of the residents of the area the Long Island Sound is a source of inspiration and renewal. The Sound is widely believed to be the most substantial natural component adding to the beauty of the entire island. The Long Island Sound provides more then just beautiful scenery, but crucial natural elements that aide both human and animal residents. Despite all that the sound provides, it suffers many of the same problems as most natural features, pollution. The sound is a crucial part in maintaining the quality of life on Long Island, so its protection, preservation, and restoration are imperative. The Long Island Sound is an estuary, and is in fact one of the largest in the world. An estuary is a place where salt water from the ocean mixes with fresh water from the rivers that drain from the land. Moreover, like other estuaries, the Long Island Sound has an abundance of fish and other waterfowl that add to the natural balance of the island, as well as one of the most important economic factors (Tedesco). Like other estuaries around the world, the Sound provides breeding, feeding, nesting, and nursery areas for many species that will spend most of their adult lives in the oceans (Long Island Sound Study). Despite these similarities to other estuaries, the Long Island Sound is unique from anywhere else in the world. Unlike other estuaries, the Long Island Sound does not just have one connection to the sea but it has two. It has two major sources of fresh water flowing into the bay that empty into the ocean. It combines this two-... ...rogen In Wastewater To Protect A Region's Waterways." BioCycle 44 (2003): 18. BigChalk. 20 Oct. 2005. Fagin, Dan. "Ancient, Clean, Controversial." Newsday 21 Sept. 2005. Joe, Brancatelli. "What Is Polluting Our Beaches?" Popular Science 1 Mar. 2003. Database. 23 Oct. 2005. Long Island Sound Study. 28 Oct. 2005 . Save The Sound. 2 Nov. 2005 . Spiegal, Jan E. "Unsound Proposal?: Concern On The Coast, Classical Conflict Again Unfolds: Energy vs. Environment." Hartford Courant 16 Oct. 2005, 3 Stars/Final ed., sec. A. Bigchalk Database. 8 Nov. 2005. Tedesco, Mark A. "This Fine Piece of Water: An Environmental History of Long Island Sound." Journal of the American Planning Association 69 (2003): 321. BigChalk. 9 Nov. 2005. The Sound Book. 8 Nov. 2005 .

Operating Plan Essay

We will First Operate in major tube metropoliss. get downing with Bangalore. and so Mumbai. Delhi. Chennai. Goa. Pune. Kolkata. Gujarat etc. After Targeting to these metropoliss. we will seek to aim the rural India which is about 70 % of India. How will we advance? We will advance through ADVERTISEMENT in ONLINE FORUM. SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES. Locally celebrated Theaters. Souvenirs given to clients. App Stores. humanoid market apps. PRINT MEDIA which is about read by every other individual normally. like Hindu. Times of India. etc in Bangalore and besides some local trade names etc. What will be our gross revenues publicity activity? Peoples would be able to book a whole new wave for household acquire together. a birthday party with their films. counter tiffin or dinner etc all made available in the coach. with some anterior engagement of minimal 7 yearss. Besides if a school or college wants to demo a educational reappraisal. or a documental to their pupils. the squad may take attention. travel to school and demo assist them with all things they needed with anterior engagement. We will be besides publishing a base on balls which will be a three clip one-year base on balls in which you can see film thrice a month with that base on balls delivering every clip you come. This will be chiefly for our twenty-four hours today clients. The one-year base on balls will besides incorporate vouchers for free Zea mays everta. or some price reduction on repast and besides some other value added services. How Will We Sell? Our chief purpose is to gain net income with making a strong client relationship. We will sell our Tickets through our ain web site. Bookmyshow. com. After some clip in long term we will do our ain apps in Iphone. android market. Ipad etc. The Timings will be pre decided. and a hebdomads timetable will besides be decided. which will demo non merely new films. but sometimes a educational movie. and local linguistic communication movies of the metropolis we operate in. Where will we park? We will park our cinevan in a short distance from our clients place. A soap of 1 kilometer far in any vicinity we decided. We will park someplace where there is ample of infinite for vehicles to come and travel. This will assist in modulating the traffic. We will besides take anterior permissions for all our topographic points. etc How will we acquire our train? We will import in the beginning and so we will seek and improvize our squad and add some interior decorators who can plan our train which will be more broad etc. our current train will suit around 70 people at a clip. How will Caravan be like? Caravan will be a coach which will hold a same experience as if you are sitting In a multiplex. The Acoustics section will be taken attention of and a finest of all will be used at that place.

The Recommendations

In the recent past, there have been calls for stricter regulations in terms of supervision and capital adequacy of the banking sector as a result of increased risks faced by banks trading internationally. A committee was therefore formed; Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, to come up with recommendations that would be adopted by banks to mitigate themselves against the risks they face in their operations.The original proposals by the committee were done in 2001 and 2003 although due to changing financial environment, revisions have had to be made that has led to the current financial proposals which were expected to be adopted by member countries after being endorsed by the central bank Governors of G10 countries (BIS, 2009). The Recommendations The framework is set out in 3 pillars; the first one being the minimum capital requirements which touch on the calculation of the minimum capital requirements, capital risk (using standardized approach, internal ratings approach as well as securitization framework), operational risk and market risk.The second pillar touches on the supervisory review process while the third pillar on market discipline (BIS, 2009). 1st Pillar This pillar gives recommendations on the minimum capital requirements and how it is calculated for purposes of credit, market and operational risks. The capital ratio should be lower than 8% with Tier 2 capital being limited to 100% of Tier 1 capital. The capital ratio is calculated using the regulatory capital and risk weighted assets.Regulatory capital framework includes Tier 1 (paid up capital , disclosed reserves), Tier 2 (undisclosed reserves, asset revaluation reserves, general provisions, hybrid capital instruments, subordinated debt and Tier 3 (subordinated short term debts). All these Tiers will be included in the capital base provided total of Tier 2 is subject to maximum of 100% of Tier 1, subordinated debt limited to 50% of Tier 1, Tier 3 capital limited to 250% of Tier 1 capital, ge neral provisions on unidentified losses limited to 1.25 percentage points and unrealized gains being subject to a discount of 55% (BIS, 2009). The internal ratings approach of calculating credit risk is based on unexpected losses and expected losses. Under this method there is categorization of exposures into asset classes with different underlying risk characteristics. These classes are corporate, sovereign, bank, retail and equity. The internal ratings approach should be adopted in the banking group in a phased manner.Standardized approach measures credit risk in a standard manner, with the help of external assessments (BIS, 2009). The other method of determining credit risk is through the use of securitization approach where exposure is determined on the basis of the economic substance rather than the legal form. Traditional securitization is where cash flow from an underlying collection of exposures is used to service a minimum of two different stratified positions showing diffe rent levels of credit risk.Synthetic securitization on the other hand is where at least two different stratified risks reflecting different levels of credit risk where credit risk of an underlying collection of exposures is transferred, partly or wholly through use of funded or unfunded derivatives that mitigate against the credit risk of the portfolio. Operational risk results from insufficient or inadequate internal processes, people and systems or from external events. Operational risk includes legal risk but not strategic or reputational. This risk is measured using standardized and advanced measurement approaches.Market risk is risk of losses in on and off balance sheet positions as a result of changes in the market prices. The risks include risks associated with interest related instruments, forex and commodities. 2nd pillar This pillar of the Basel II provisions touches on supervisory review, risk management as well as supervisory accountability in relation to risks facing th e banks. Supervisory review ensures that banks have enough capital to manage risks develop internal capital assessment , how well banks are assessing their capital requirements as regarding risks as well as amount of capital held against risks.The second pillar also has 4 provisions on banks i. e. banks should have processes of assessing their overall capital adequacy in relation to risk and maintaining capital levels, banks internal capacity and strategies and compliance with capital ratios. , banks operate above regulatory capital ratios and capital requirements, and intervention by supervisors to avoid capital falling bellow minimum capital requirements. Other issues to be addressed under this pillar include interest rate risks, credit risks, operational risks, and market risk (BIS, 2009) 3rd pillarThis touches on the disclosure requirements under Basel II. The disclosure requirements is to complement pillar 1 and 2 thus encouraging market discipline in terms of information acces s on risk, capital, risk assessment process. The disclosures should be in line with the management of these risks thus effectively informing the market on the banks exposure to risks hence enable consistency, understandability and comparability. The information could be made publicly available and in case of non disclosure, penalties may be enforced. These, though, varies across different countries.The disclosure requirements under the framework should not conflict with the accounting standards which are overall and if conflicts arise, they should be explained. Accounting disclosures should also be complemented with the frameworks disclosure requirements to clarify the disclosures (BIS, 2009). Materiality of the disclosures should also be considered. Materiality is determined by the effect of omission or inclusion of an item. The disclosures can also be done on a semi annually, quarterly, or annual basis depending on the nature of information to be disclosed.Confidential and proprie tary information should also be considered in disclosing information to the market. Challenges facing Basel II The implementation of the provisions of Basel II has not been smooth sailing. It has presented some apparent challenges to banks across the globe. The new framework has led to the mobilization of the risk, information systems and finance departments of the banks given the fact that far reaching provisions contained in the accord. This in itself will involve the use of resources in terms of manpower and money (Accenture, 2007).Banks are also faced with the challenge of implementation of the framework in terms of the change in the product portfolios as well as economic environments. This is in terms of the capital requirements which under the accord, should be above the minimum limits. The assessment of capital requirements may also lead to changes in product portfolios thus leading to introduction and withdrawal of other products. Despite the apparent benefits brought about by the new accord, some banks view Basel II as a regulatory bottle neck in their operations.Other challenges that accompany the implementation of Basel II is that of the cost implication. Given the far reaching provisions of the framework, the costs to be incurred in setting up supervisory teams and risk assessment mechanisms may be out of reach of smaller banks or even ‘eat’ into the profits of well established banking institutions. The costs involved have led to uncertainty among many bank heads (Accenture, 2007). The current information systems in most banks around the globe cannot adequately meet the requirements of Basel II.This means that banks will have to either improve on their information systems or overhaul them completely. This brings us back to the issue of cost involved in the implementation of the framework. The need of historical data in the calculation of credit risk, advanced internal rating based approach which requires up to 7 years in historical dat a or advanced measurement approach which requires up to 5 years of historical data will definitely increase the need of databases by banks which also has cost implications attached to it (Accenture, 2007).The implementation of Basel II will lead to the complete change in the existing systems and processes in order to meet the new regulations in risk determination and management as well as capital adequacy. The implementation of the accord will also see the changes in operations of the banks at the same time calling for closer supervision The adoption of the recommendations of the accord has received widespread acceptance although the level of implementation is varied.The effect of this is that there may be lack of uniformity hence making comparisons difficult between different banks (Accenture, 2007). Conclusion Despite all the above mentioned challenges, the benefits brought about by the implementation of Basel II far outweigh the drawbacks. The provisions enable banks to have and develop credit management and assessment systems that will help them to mitigate these risks effectively. The regulatory capital requirements under the accord will also enable the banks to have adequate capital to finance their operations as well as manage any risk arising thereof.The disclosure requirements also ensure that the market is aware of the operations of the banks. References Accenture. (2007, December 10th). Basel II Impacts: Challenges and Opportunities. Retrieved March 16th, 2009, from Accenture: http://www. accenture. com/xdoc/en/industries/financial/banking/capabilities/BII_Survey_SAP. pdf BIS. (2009, March 10th). Basel II:Revised International Capiatl Frameork. Retrieved March 16th, 2009, from Bank for International Settlements: http://www. bis. org/publ/bcbs128. htm

The Great Depression 1929-33: A Sources Assignment

Question 1: Source A is an election poster published by the Democratic Party during the Depression. It is a cynical portrayal, mocking the Republican Party's beliefs. It implies that their policies have no foundations by telling people to smile and hope the Depression will go away, ‘This wonderful little gadget will solve the problems of the Nation'. It also says ‘WARNING – Do not risk Federal arrest by looking glum'. This is a subtle, sardonic reference to the Bonus Marchers, who had fought in the First World War and who, in May 1932 marched to demand immediate payment of the bonus they had been promised by the government. The quote from the poster refers to the way the government put down the protesters by arresting people and using violence. This poster gives us evidence about the beliefs of the Democratic Party and the methods employed by it to gain support. However, as the poster is a piece of propaganda and aims to persuade people to support their party it is biased and opinionated. This means that it may be over exaggerated for effect and comedy value. The truth may have been stretched to make a joke of it and win people's support. I do not agree that this poster (source A) does not give any evidence about the Great Depression. It may not be reliable evidence but it does have some historical value. It presents evidence about the ‘Bonus Army', the views of the Republican and Democratic Parties and the methods used by the Democratic Party to gain support. Question 2: Source B was written at the time of the Depression by an American actor, Will Rogers. It is quite accurate about what was happening, he says ‘We are starving to death', which was actually happening at this time. It is a primary source, written by someone with direct experience of the Depression but it cannot be completely reliable as although it is stated as fact it is actually opinion. This makes it less reliable as the author of the source may be biased or not know all of the facts. This source is particularly unreliable as an actor who may have over exaggerated to produce an effect wrote it. Source C is a statement written by D.B. O'Callagham, author of ‘Roosevelt and the United States'. It was written in 18966, over thirty years after the Depression. This source comments less on the impact of the Depression than Source B. It talks more about the Wall Street Crash and is based more on facts than opinion. It uses other sources as evidence to support the facts, ‘Economical experts have said†¦' and although it is a secondary source it seems quite accurate. The fact that it was written after the Depression gives it the advantage of hindsight but means it may be less accurate. Overall I think Source C is more reliable as evidence about the impact of the Depression because it is more factual then Source B. The author of the book would have tried to make it as accurate as possible and backs up his argument with evidence. Question 3 Source D is an artist's view of the Wall Street Crash. This tells us that it is not factual as it is a painting based on the artist's opinion and the artist is probably trying to put across his own point of view. It was created in October 1929 (at the time of the Wall Street crash) and was probably painted by someone with direct experience of the Crash. However it is quite an abstract painting, which different people may interpret in different ways. Source E is a set of statistics showing the changes in the price of shares of leading US companies between September and November 1929. They seem to be quite accurate as to the general change in prices but they are ‘from official figures' which means their accuracy depends on the accuracy of the figures from which they are compiled. These figures could have been adjusted to support an argument, and they lack detail that may improve their reliability. I think that Source E is more useful to a historian studying the Wall Street Crash because the statistics are more factual. There is very little factual information supplied by Source D and its usefulness could depend on the historian's interpretation of the painting. However the statistics although not completely sound are more reliable and useful as evidence because they are factual. Question 4 Source E is from a popular song of 1932. It tells of how the protagonist thought he was ‘building a dream' on the way to ‘peace and glory' for his country but he is now standing in the bread line. This is a typical story of what happened to many working-class men during the Depression. They spent their lives working hard for a better life but the suffered worst during a Depression that was not their fault. This makes the song seem accurate as this actually happened to many people. However the song may have been changed or simplified to fit a certain rhythm or rhyme and the songwriter probably had a personal point, which he wished to put across. I think that it does give an accurate interpretation of most people's attitudes towards the Depression. Not all people would have agreed with this interpretation because they were not affected in this way. This was mainly rich people and people who had been lucky enough to keep their jobs. However I think that it does give an accurate interpretation of a great proportion of people. It is called a ‘popular song', this means that a lot of people must have liked the song, probably because they found it truthful as they could relate to its message and because the were comforted to find that others were in the same position as them. Question 5 Source A does not really give much of an idea as to who suffered more or less during the Recession. It is an election poster aimed to appeal to all people who had suffered under the Depression. Source B says that the working classes were not to blame for the Depression and that it was the rich people whose fault it was. It implies that the poor suffered more because although they were not to blame they felt the effects of it worst. Source C tells us that not enough money was ‘finding its way into the hands of the workers' in the prosperity of the twenties. This shows that the workers did not enjoy much of the wealth of this decade and as a result of this they suffered worse in the Depression because the little they had, they lost. Source D does not tell us anything about the poorer people as it does not distinguish between the rich and the poor. Source E also does not give much of idea about the suffering of the poor, as statistics do not go into enough detail to tell us this. Source F probably says the most about poor people. The person who wrote the song tells us about waiting in line for bread and begging for money. I do not think that the poor suffered most as a result of the Great Depression because the people who were already poor did not have much to loose. If they were very poor before the Depression, the Depression had little or no effect on them. I think that the people who suffered the most were the working classes who had worked hard all their lives and earned their money. They lost the most during the Wall Street Crash, because the Rich did not loose enough to affect them and the poor lost nothing at all. Therefore I think that it was not the poor but the working classes who suffered the most because they lost what they had worked their whole lives for.

A Process Oriented Approach to Waiting Line Management in a Large Pilgrimage Center in India Essay

This article documents an innovative approach to manage waiting line in the largest pilgrimage center in the world. By a judicious combination of process orientation and advances in Information Technology, the pilgrimage center’s management has been able to dramatically change the pilgrims waiting experience. The pilgrimage location under study is Tirumala located in Andhra Pradesh state in India. The number of visitors to this important location has been steadily increasing over time. As of 2011, the location attracted approximately 30 to 40 million visitors a year. The primary objective of a pilgrim visiting Tirumala is to have darshan of the principle deity in the temple. The secondary objectives include tonsure (shaving head as a mark of respect), offering donations, prasadam collection, thulabaram, arjitha seva (paid services), local sightseeing and shopping. The immense popularity of the temple and its location poses significant challenges to the management of the system. This temple is a tradition bound Institution. Therefore, some alternatives to resolve pilgrim waiting time are feasible and some are not. There are some hard constraints which may not stand the test of logic. The ability to manage the traffic volume is a function of processing rate (darshan duration) at the temple and darshan time available per day. This case study is an example of improving operational effectiveness by using formal management methods in addressing an important real life problem in an under researched area. This pilgrimage center is located in the extension of Western Ghats and is popularly known as Tirumala. It is considered to be the abode of Lord Vishnu in the form of Venkateswara. The temple is the richest pilgrimage center, after the Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, of any faith (at more than 50,000 crore) and the most-visited place of worship in the world. This center attracts a large number of visitors from all over the country irrespective of their caste, religion, belief, social status and professional affiliation. The temple is visited by about 50,000 to 100,000 pilgrims daily (30 to 40 million people annually on average), while on special occasions and festivals, like the annual Brahmotsavam, the number of pilgrims shoots up to 500,000, making it the most-visited holy place in the world. The temple is on Venkatadri (also known as Venkatachala or Venkata Hill), the seventh peak, and is also known as the â€Å"Temple of Seven Hills†. Venkatadri, the hillock residing place of Lord Venkateswara is probably one of the oldest religious institutions in India. It is known to exist for over a period of 2000 years. It has a recorded history of thousand years. Based on the recorded history, the rituals and daily routines in this sacred temple are being performed without a break for more than 1000 years. Over a period of time Venkatadri has evolved as an epicenter of Vaishnavism. Several prominent Hindu religious institutions either have established a presence in Venkatadri or have made this as place of their administrative headquarters. Today, Venkatadri is not only a religious institution, but it has also evolved as a social institution. It supports financially a group of thirty (higher) educational institutions. Its mission is to systematically promote the study of Vedas and Sanskrit literature. The temple also provides generous financial support for construction of similar temples (Venkateswara) elsewhere in the country. Over a period of 50 years, the number of visitors to the temple and the town has increased by eight fold. [I960(2 million), 1970(4 million), 1980(7 million), 1990(11 million), 2000(16 million), 2010(30 million)]. Such a huge traffic generates tremendous stress on the social and physical infrastructure of the temple down (Tirumala and Tirupati). Being a tradition bound organization, certain modifications (on procedure, layout etc.) are not acceptable. The devotees (exposed to modern social norms) who come to the temple expect a better service quality and shorter waiting time. Thus, the managerial challenge is to balance the tradition, operational efficiency and increasing pilgrim expectations. Activities in the temple and the town and their management need to be also seen from a religious perspective. There is a divine dispensation in the institution, which may not be tinkered with in whatever modification(s) that are made in the facilities redesign and management of activities. Methodology The product and its delivery Pilgrims from all over the country arrive in the temple town. Usually they reach the foothill which is known as Tirupati. The mode of transport is rail, road (public or private transport) and air. Having reached Tirupati, those who have their own transport directly proceed to Tirumala. Some spend a few hours in sightseeing and visiting other temples and religious locations in and around Tirupati. The distance between Tirupati and Tirumala is 19Kms. Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) operates regular services between Tirumala and Tirupati. The round trip is about 2.5 hours including waiting time at both the boarding points. Having reached Tirumala, the pilgrims look for a suitable accommodation. There are about 5000 cottages owned and managed by TTD for pilgrim’s convenience. After (a brief) resting, pilgrims go for tonsure (there are 500 barbers who operate on a 3 shift basis; 15,000 tonsures are done in a day). The annual revenue from export of hair (from tonsure) is Rs. 100 million. Following tonsure pilgrims go for a wash and bath in the holy tank in the middle of the temple town and then join the queue for darshan. Some pilgrims on arrival at Tirumala directly join the darshan queue and after the darshan visit the tonsure centre, take a bath in the holy tank and departure to their place of residence. There are 32 waiting compartments to house pilgrims while they await darshan. The average capacity of these compartments is 500. About 17,000 pilgrims can be held in waiting at any time. The average waiting time for darshan can vary between 2-12 hours depending on the day and season. There is tremendous uncertainty as when darshan would happen. There is also anxiety as how long is the wait. There is no (accurate) information to the pilgrims on what is ahead. Because of the commitment to the pilgrimage process, individual pilgrims go through this tedious experience with reverence and patience. Finally on a FIFO basis, pilgrims arrive in front of the deity. The actual darshan lasts for about 1.5 to 2 seconds. However, the pilgrims can have a view of the deity from a distance of 30 meters from the main entrance. The travel time is about 45 seconds. Actually, the passage towards darshan admits a file of 6 or 7 columns of pilgrims to go through the darshan process simultaneously. After the darshan the pilgrims donate money at the Hundi, equivalent of donation box, located inside as well as outside the temple and then leave the temple premises. The Hundi collection is about Rs. 2000 million a year. Often, they stand in another queue to receive free laddu (there are several counters that sell laddu). Approximately, 75,000 laddus are sold in a day. In view of demand and supply gap, there is rationing and restrictions on how many laddus a pilgrim can buy. Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam (TTD) the administrative agency in charge of this temple provides free meal to about 25,000 persons in a day. After receipt of laddu(s) and a meal, the pilgrim returns to his cottage or wait for a transport to go Tirupati and subsequently to his place of residence.